"The raven, this unsung teacher of nature, shows humanity that the answers to the most complex problems often lie within the simplest acts of creation—is it not time we humbly return to nature’s school?"
"This article bridges Quranic teachings and modern cognitive science through a profound examination of Verse 31 of Surah Al-Ma'idah. While the Quran spoke centuries ago of the crow’s astonishing cognitive abilities, empirical science now confirms this bird’s remarkable intelligence in problem-solving, future planning, and even social dynamics. This research not only highlights the convergence of faith and science but also serves as a wake-up call for humanity to embrace humility before nature’s grand design. Can we draw from this divine-scientific symbiosis a model to navigate the complex challenges of the technological age?"
Abstract
Quranic references to nature encompass a wide range of scientific themes. Among these, the only verse that explicitly mentions divine inspiration from nature for solving human challenges is Verse 31 of Surah Al-Ma’idah. This verse describes the action of a crow scratching the ground, observed by Cain, which leads him to a solution for a problem that had previously left him helpless. A closer examination of this verse directs us to several research areas: (1) The crow’s purposeful behavior draws human attention to its cognitive features and memory as tools for solving seemingly unsolvable problems. (2) A relative comparison can be made between the cognitive traits of crows and humans. (3) Inspired by the crow’s memory, decision-making algorithms, and future-oriented behavior, a cognitive and ethical model may be designed to help humans confront novel and relatively complex challenges. Finally, by exploring the relationship between the crow’s cognitive traits and various memory systems, both evident and hidden research horizons for future studies were proposed.
Keywords: Bioinspiration, Long-term memory, Working memory.
1. Introduction
Although bioinspiration (learning from nature) has emerged as a significant topic in technology and interdisciplinary research over the past decade, it has been a fundamental problem-solving strategy since the dawn of humanity. Historically, the first explicit reference to bioinspiration in the Holy Quran appears in the story of Cain and Abel, narrated in Verse 31 of Surah Al-Ma’idah. The phrase “Then Allah sent a crow” (“فَبَعَثَ اللَّهُ غُرابًا”) indicates that God, by sending a crow, taught Cain how to bury his brother’s corpse. The immediate interpretation of this narrative is that divinely guided human inspiration from nature for problem-solving was first explicitly demonstrated in this event.
The phrase “scratching the earth” (“يَبْحَثُ فِي الْأَرْضِ”) illustrates the crow’s behavior of either concealing prey (or other valuable items) or retrieving hidden items. Beyond teaching burial techniques, this action highlights the crow’s deliberate exploration of a uniform terrain. While this behavior may initially seem purely instinctive, contemporary scientific studies reveal profound cognitive and behavioral implications, elevating the crow’s status in comparison to humans.
The process of hiding and retrieving objects, as described in the verse, reflects cognitive abilities and complex memory functions. When Cain learns this behavior under divine guidance, he exclaims, “Woe to me! Am I unable to be like this crow?” (“یا وَیلَتَى أَعَجَزتُ أَن أَکونَ مِثلَ هذا الغُرابِ”), expressing a sense of inadequacy before this small creature. This reaction, which may initially appear exaggerated, gains profound meaning in light of modern scientific findings. While human cognitive superiority over other species is well-established, certain animals—due to millions of years of evolutionary experience—may outperform humans in solving specific complex problems. Crows exhibit advanced cognitive abilities in certain domains, particularly in practical problem-solving such as concealment and retrieval. Cain’s observation of the crow’s behavior reveals a form of “cognitive superiority” in this specific context. This comparison, though simple, carries deep psychological and scientific implications, suggesting that humans can draw inspiration from nature when confronting their own limitations.
Scientific findings lend new meaning to the Quranic verse:
The crow’s goal-directed behavior highlights its cognitive and memory-based problem-solving abilities, drawing human attention to a solution that initially seemed unattainable.
The human sense of helplessness when facing novel problems underscores a relative comparison—or even a cognitive parallel—between crows and humans.
The crow’s memory and behavior may serve as a cognitive and ethical model for humans confronting new and complex challenges. To deepen our understanding of these Quranic concepts, a thorough review of credible studies on the cognitive traits and memory systems of corvids (the crow family) is essential.
2. Literature Review
Corvids (Corvidae) are a family of passerine birds that include crows (Corvus), rooks, ravens, jackdaws, choughs, magpies, jays, nutcrackers, and treepies [1]. Studies indicate that corvids are not only more intelligent than most bird species (with the possible exception of some parrots), but recent research compares their cognitive performance to that of primates [2] and even a seven-year-old human child [3, 4].
Neuroscientists associate complex cognitive abilities with two primary neural features:
Brain size,
The presence of a cerebral cortex [5]. Compared to large mammals, birds and corvids have small brains [6]. However, brain size must be assessed relative to body size. Corvids possess significantly larger brains than predicted for their body size [7], with a brain-to-body ratio comparable to that of chimpanzees [2]. Although corvids lack a cerebral cortex, their neural foundation consists of the nidopallium caudolaterale (NCL) and a high neuronal density [8]. The NCL in corvids is functionally analogous to the mammalian prefrontal cortex, managing working memory and decision-making [9, 10]. Moreover, their brains contain more information-processing neurons than the mammalian cortex [11]. Notably, while cortical neurons constitute 19% of the mammalian brain, they account for 78% in corvids [12–14].
Cognitive abilities and complex behaviors in corvids correlate with brain size and neuronal count [15, 16]. Globally, numerous high-impact studies have demonstrated that these intelligent creatures solve intricate puzzles, sometimes using tools [17, 18]. They understand analogies, match items based on color, shape, or quantity, and can count up to 30 while retaining numerical memory [19]. Remarkably, ravens vocalize counts audibly [20], suggesting that their sensory-motor neurons convert perceived quantities into numerical representations [21, 22], possibly indicating a language-like system [23]. Experiments confirm that crows remember sequences of behaviors even after two days or a month [24]. They recognize themselves in mirrors [25], exhibit body awareness [26], and excel in social cognition and future planning. Corvids memorize human faces and voices [27], hold grudges [28], and strategize resource management—choosing between immediate consumption, theft, or retrieving hidden food [29].
Memory, a fundamental cognitive component, enables organisms to store, retrieve, and process information [30]. Recent studies emphasize the exceptional memory of crows, which retain past events for months or years, applying learned experiences to future decisions [31]. One widely publicized study, “Crows’ Memory is for the Future,” highlights this trait. Other researchers show that crows predict future events based on prior experiences, adjusting their behavior accordingly [32]—a capability once thought unique to humans.
Given the long lifespan of corvids (e.g., ravens live 25–30 years in the wild [33], with one recorded raven reaching 59 years [34]), two questions arise:
Does their lifestyle involve optimal decision-making that ensures survival over decades?
Can studying their cognitive algorithms (e.g., memory and decision-making) inform predictive models for future technologies?
As the first phase of a broader research proposal, this study reviews existing literature on corvid cognition and memory. Subsequent research directions will be proposed to guide future investigations.
3. Research Methodology
3-1. Methodology for the Religious and Quranic Research Component: This study draws upon Verse 31 of Surah Al-Ma’idah, referencing authoritative exegeses (tafsir) including Tafsir al-Mizan, Tafsir al-Namuna, Al-Amthal fi Tafsir Kitab Allah al-Munzal, Al-Tibyan fi Tafsir al-Quran, Majma’ al-Bayan, Tafsir Jawami’ al-Jami’, Bayan al-Sa’ada fi Maqamat al-‘Ibada, Jami’ al-Bayan ‘an Ta’wil Ay al-Quran (Al-Tabari), Al-Durr al-Manthur fi al-Tafsir bi al-Ma’thur, Al-Tafsir al-Kabir (Mafatih al-Ghayb), Al-Kashshaf, Al-Kashf wa al-Bayan fi Tafsir al-Quran (Al-Tha’labi), Tafsir Ruh al-Bayan, Al-Tahrir wa al-Tanwir (Ibn Ashur), Tafsir Kabir Minhaj al-Sadiqin, Tafsir al-Jalalayn, Tafsir Qur’an-e Mehr, Tafsir al-Qummi, Tafsir Nur al-Thaqalayn, Tafsir al-Safi, Tafsir Kanz al-Daqa’iq, and others. Three key themes were extracted from the verse’s phrases:
“Then Allah sent a crow” (فَبَعَثَ اللَّهُ غُرابًا),
“Scratching the earth” (يَبْحَثُ فِي الْأَرْضِ),
“Woe to me! Am I unable to be like this crow?” (یا وَیلَتَى أَعَجَزتُ أَن أَکونَ مِثلَ هذا الغُرابِ). These themes—bioinspiration, memory, cognitive traits of crows, and their comparability to humans—were systematically analyzed.
3-2. Methodology for the Scientific Research Component: The three themes derived from the Quranic verse served as scientific leads for a comprehensive search in high-impact journals (Nature, Science, and specialized journals with an Impact Factor >5). Keywords included Corvidae, Raven, Crow, Cognition, Brain, Memory, and Intelligence. From the search results, 78 articles most relevant to the research objectives were selected and categorized based on the conceptual framework derived from the verse.
4. Results and Discussion
Corvids (Corvidae), among the most cognitively advanced bird species, exhibit remarkable abilities in tool use, future planning, complex social management, and causal reasoning. Research confirms that these behaviors are directly linked to their memory systems. This section examines sensory, short-term, and long-term memory in corvids, exploring their relationship with cognitive traits such as tool use, future planning, social interactions, and causal inference, alongside the neural underpinnings of these abilities.
4-1. Cognitive Traits of Corvids Based on Memory Systems In advanced species like corvids, memory plays a pivotal role in complex behaviors. Drawing on Atkinson and Shiffrin’s (1960s) widely cited classification [35], cognitive memory is categorized into three main types based on information retention duration:
Sensory Memory: Temporary storage of sensory input for initial processing.
Short-term Memory (including Working Memory): Immediate information processing and utilization.
Long-term Memory: Comprising explicit (episodic and semantic) and implicit memory. Corvids leverage these memory systems to execute complex behaviors like tool fabrication, future planning, social navigation, and causal inference, underscoring memory as the foundation of advanced cognition and opening new avenues for comparative studies.
4-1-1. Sensory Memory Sensory memory involves brief (millisecond-scale) retention of visual and auditory stimuli [36], serving as the first stage of cognitive processing by holding environmental inputs for preliminary analysis [37]. It is critical for rapid visual recognition, social interactions, and instantaneous decision-making to avoid threats [38]. Corvids store visual data for swift object/environment identification [39] and use auditory sensory memory to distinguish conspecific calls and predator sounds [16]. Comparative studies reveal that corvid sensory memory rivals or surpasses mammalian capabilities in certain domains.
4-1-2. Short-term and Working Memory Short-term memory retains information for seconds to minutes, while working memory—a more advanced subsystem—enables active information manipulation [40]. Though related, they differ functionally: short-term memory is a passive buffer (15–30 seconds) [40], whereas working memory integrates real-time data with long-term knowledge for problem-solving [41]. This dynamic system, observed in humans, primates, and corvids [43], shows analogous neural activity in brain regions responsible for visual processing and working memory across these groups [44].
The Delayed Match-to-Sample (DMS) test [45] evaluates animal memory capacity. While many birds succeed in recalling visual information over short intervals [46], only corvids demonstrate robust resistance to interference, managing working memory via neurons in the nidopallium caudolaterale (NCL) [47, 48]. Experiments show corvids categorize auditory stimuli (by frequency or novelty) [49], utilize spatial memory [50], quantify numerical data [51], orchestrate tool-making steps [52], and exert cognitive control over goal-directed behaviors [53].
4-1-3. Long-term Memory Long-term memory stores information indefinitely [54] and divides into:
Explicit Memory: Conscious recall of events (episodic) and facts (semantic) [55].
Implicit Memory: Unconscious retention of skills/habits [56].
Corvids exhibit exceptional episodic memory, recalling cached food locations after months (Clark’s nutcrackers: 9–11 months [58]; Western scrub jays: 4–124 hours [59]; magpies: same/next day [58]). Wild American crows remember threatening human faces for 2.7 years [28], and jungle crows retain learned information for ≥10 months [60].
Episodic Memory: Clayton & Dickinson (1998) demonstrated corvids’ episodic-like memory by showing they recall what (food type), where (location), and when (time elapsed) to prioritize perishable items [59]. They predict competitors’ actions [62], remember past social interactions (empathy, cooperation, deception) [63, 64], and distinguish fair/unfair individuals [65]. Episodic memory also facilitates future planning: corvids store tools for anticipated tasks [70, 71] and integrate auditory cues for predictive behaviors [72].
Semantic Memory: This system stores conceptual knowledge (facts, meanings, rules) independent of specific contexts [73]. Corvids classify conspecifics’ emotional states using semantic pointers [75], exhibit sensory awareness [76], and apply causal reasoning to solve mathematical tasks [22], tool-use challenges [17, 79], and environmental adaptations.
Implicit Memory: While corvids rely more on episodic memory, implicit memory (unconscious skill retention [80]) is less dominant, partly due to its susceptibility to temporal-sequence errors [81].
“The Holy Quran, in Verse 31 of Surah Al-Ma’idah, introduces the crow as humanity’s first bio-inspired teacher, demonstrating advanced cognitive behaviors as a problem-solving paradigm. Modern neuroscience now empirically validates the crow’s working memory, future planning, and social intelligence, affirming this divine inspiration.”
5. Conclusion and Future Research Directions
Corvids, as one of the most intelligent avian species, have opened new horizons in understanding non-human cognition through their exceptional abilities—such as tool use, future planning, and complex social management. While these studies ostensibly focus on analyzing corvid memory and cognition, deeper examination reveals hidden objectives. From advancing artificial intelligence (AI) and cognitive technologies to redefining the philosophy of consciousness, this research has far-reaching implications for science and human societies. Thus, future studies on corvid cognition can be categorized into explicit and hidden research horizons.
5-1. Explicit Research Horizons
5-1-1. Understanding Memory Structure and Function
Investigating sensory, working, and long-term memory in corvids helps uncover the neural and cognitive mechanisms underlying these processes. Such studies expand our knowledge of corvid cognition—including future planning, problem-solving, and complex social interactions—while illuminating evolutionary parallels and convergent cognitive evolution between birds and mammals.
5-1-2. Development of Cognitive Technologies
Corvids serve as bioinspiration for AI systems. Simulating their working memory can enhance machine learning algorithms, and their goal-directed behaviors inform autonomous robotics. For instance, their food-caching strategies and predictive abilities offer models for resource-management algorithms in AI.
5-1-3. Ecosystem Conservation
Corvids act as bioindicators for ecosystem health. Changes in their social or cognitive behaviors may reflect climate change, habitat destruction, or pollution. These insights are critical for conservation policies and environmental monitoring.
5-2. Hidden Research Horizons
5-2-1. Mind Management and Control
Research on corvid cognition could lead to technologies for manipulating behavior in intelligent species. If environmental or neural interventions can alter corvid decision-making, similar methods might apply to humans—raising ethical concerns about animal training, aggression reduction in wildlife, or surveillance tools.
5-2-2. Redefining Consciousness
Corvid behaviors like future planning challenge traditional definitions of consciousness. If evidence confirms their self-awareness, it would reshape ethical and legal frameworks for human-animal interactions, potentially granting non-human species new rights.
5-2-3. AI Tools for Prediction and Social Control
Corvid decision-making algorithms could inspire predictive systems for human collective behavior, with applications in cybersecurity, crisis management, or social surveillance. Simulating their social dynamics might enable tools to influence—or control—human group behavior.
5-2-4. Human Society and Interspecies Dynamics
Corvid social structures provide models for analyzing human collective decision-making. This knowledge could inform policies for managing human-wildlife coexistence or even manipulating social hierarchies.
5-3. Challenges and Ethical Implications
While corvid cognition research appears scientifically neutral, its broader consequences intersect with power, ethics, and philosophy:
Geopolitical Inequity: Nations monopolizing this knowledge could weaponize it for dominance, creating scientific “colonies” among less advanced countries.
Ethical Dilemmas: If corvids possess consciousness, should humans have the right to manipulate their cognition? How do we redefine interspecies rights?
Surveillance Risks: Cognitive-inspired AI might enable mass behavioral control, threatening individual freedoms if misused by authoritarian regimes.
5-4. A Quranic Framework for Ethical Research
The Quranic narrative of Cain learning burial from a crow (Surah Al-Ma’idah 5:31) underscores the divine endorsement of bioinspiration. For Muslim-majority nations, this offers a moral blueprint:
Ethical Leadership: Aligning cognitive research with Islamic values to prevent exploitation.
Scientific Independence: Investing in indigenous research to avoid technological colonialism.
Holistic Progress: Merging Quranic wisdom with cutting-edge science to address environmental and societal challenges.
By embracing this synthesis, we can pioneer an ethical, Quranically grounded model for cognitive science—one that elevates humanity without compromising moral boundaries. As the crow guided Cain, nature’s lessons remain a divine compass for human advancement.
References:
1. Clayton, N. and N. Emery, Corvid cognition. Current Biology, 2005. 15(3): p. R80-R81.
2. Emery, N.J. and N.S. Clayton, The mentality of crows: convergent evolution of intelligence in corvids and apes. science, 2004. 306(5703): p. 1903-1907.
3. Clayton, N.S., EPS Mid-Career Award 2013: ways of thinking: from crows to children and back again. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 2015. 68(2): p. 209-241.
4. Rincon, P., Science/nature| crows and jays top bird IQ scale. BBC News, 2005. 22.
5. Van Der Vaart, E., R. Verbrugge, and C.K. Hemelrijk, Corvid re-caching without ‘theory of mind’: A model. PloS one, 2012. 7(3): p. e32904.
6. Ditz, H.M., J.K. Kupferman, and A. Nieder, Neurons in the hippocampus of crows lack responses to non-spatial abstract categories. Frontiers in Systems Neuroscience, 2018. 12: p. 33.
7. Jerison, H., Evolution of the brain and intelligence. 2012: Elsevier.
8. Güntürkün, O., R. Pusch, and J. Rose, Why birds are smart. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 2024. 28(3): p. 197-209.
9. Stacho, M., et al., A cortex-like canonical circuit in the avian forebrain. Science, 2020. 369(6511): p. eabc5534.
10. Güntürkün, O. and T. Bugnyar, Cognition without Cortex. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 2016. 20(4): p. 291-303.
11. Herculano-Houzel, S., Birds do have a brain cortex—and think. Science, 2020. 369(6511): p. 1567-1568.
12. Olkowicz, S., et al., Birds have primate-like numbers of neurons in the forebrain. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 2016. 113(26): p. 7255-7260.
13. Handley, W.D. and T.H. Worthy, Endocranial anatomy of the giant extinct Australian mihirung birds (Aves, Dromornithidae). Diversity, 2021. 13(3): p. 124.
14. Kverková, K., et al., The evolution of brain neuron numbers in amniotes. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 2022. 119(11): p. e2121624119.
15. Barron, A.B. and F. Mourmourakis, The Relationship between Cognition and Brain Size or Neuron Number. Brain Behavior and Evolution, 2023. 99(2): p. 109-122.
16. Moll, Felix W. and A. Nieder, Cross-Modal Associative Mnemonic Signals in Crow Endbrain Neurons. Current Biology, 2015. 25(16): p. 2196-2201.
17. Pendergraft, L.T., et al., American crows that excel at tool use activate neural circuits distinct from less talented individuals. Nature Communications, 2023. 14(1): p. 6539.
18. Bayern, A.M.P.v., et al., Compound tool construction by New Caledonian crows. Scientific Reports, 2018. 8(1): p. 15676.
19. Ditz, H.M. and A. Nieder, Format-dependent and format-independent representation of sequential and simultaneous numerosity in the crow endbrain. Nature Communications, 2020. 11(1): p. 686.
20. Liao, D.A., et al., Crows “count” the number of self-generated vocalizations. Science, 2024. 384(6698): p. 874-877.
21. Sol, D., et al., Neuron numbers link innovativeness with both absolute and relative brain size in birds. Nature Ecology & Evolution, 2022. 6(9): p. 1381-1389.
22. Kirschhock, M.E. and A. Nieder, Number selective sensorimotor neurons in the crow translate perceived numerosity into number of actions. Nature Communications, 2022. 13(1): p. 6913.
23. Morell, V., These crows may count in a way similar to human toddlers, in Science News. 2024, Science News.
24. Müller, J., et al., Ravens remember the nature of a single reciprocal interaction sequence over 2 days and even after a month. Animal Behaviour, 2017. 128: p. 69-78.
25. Brecht, K.F. and A. Nieder, Parting self from others: Individual and self-recognition in birds. Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews, 2020. 116: p. 99-108.
26. Khvatov, I.A., et al., Hooded Crows (Corvus cornix) May Be Aware of Their Own Body Size. Frontiers in Psychology, 2021. 12: p. 769397.
27. Taylor, A.H., et al., Complex cognition and behavioural innovation in New Caledonian crows. Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, 2010. 277(1694): p. 2637-2643.
28. Marzluff, J.M., et al., Lasting recognition of threatening people by wild American crows. Animal Behaviour, 2010. 79(3): p. 699-707.
29. Boeckle M, K.U.a.C.N., Editorial: Memories for the future. Front. Psychol, 2024.
30. Vicuna, M. and J.M. Vicuna, Memory as a Foundation for Learning. 2024.
31. Boeckle, M. and N.S. Clayton, A raven’s memories are for the future. Science, 2017. 357(6347): p. 126-127.
32. Kabadayi, C. and M. Osvath, Ravens parallel great apes in flexible planning for tool-use and bartering. Science, 2017. 357(6347): p. 202-204.
33. Marzluff, J.M., The Raven, A Natural History in Britain and Ireland. Ornithological Applications, 1998. 100(1): p. 185.
34. Dutt, Y., Coming Out as Dalit: A Memoir of Surviving India’s Caste System (Updated Edition). 2024: Beacon Press.
35. Atkinson, R.C., Human memory: A proposed system and its control processes. The psychology of learning and motivation, 1968. 2.
36. Carlson, N.R., Psychology: The science of behavior. (No Title), 1993.
37. Winkler, I. and N. Cowan, From Sensory to Long-Term Memory. Experimental Psychology, 2005. 52(1): p. 3-20.
38. Sabri, M., et al., Neural correlates of auditory sensory memory and automatic change detection. NeuroImage, 2004. 21(1): p. 69-74.
39. Ditz, H.M. and A. Nieder, Sensory and Working Memory Representations of Small and Large Numerosities in the Crow Endbrain. The Journal of Neuroscience, 2016. 36(47): p. 12044-12052.
40. Jonides, J., et al., The mind and brain of short-term memory. Annu. Rev. Psychol., 2008. 59(1): p. 193-224.
41. Baddeley, A., Working memory, in Memory. 2020, Routledge. p. 71-111.
42. Postman, L.E.O., Short-Term Memory and Incidental Learning11The preparation of this paper was facilitated by a grant from the National Science Foundation to the Institute of Human Learning, University of California, Berkeley, and by Contract Nonr 222(90) with the Office of Naval Research, in Categories of Human Learning, A.W. Melton, Editor. 1964, Academic Press. p. 145-201.
43. Balakhonov, D. and J. Rose, Crows Rival Monkeys in Cognitive Capacity. Scientific Reports, 2017. 7(1): p. 8809.
44. Hahn, L.A., et al., Working memory capacity of crows and monkeys arises from similar neuronal computations. eLife, 2021. 10: p. e72783.
45. Lind, J., M. Enquist, and S. Ghirlanda, Animal memory: A review of delayed matching-to-sample data. Behavioural Processes, 2015. 117: p. 52-58.
46. Rinnert, P. and A. Nieder, Neural Code of Motor Planning and Execution during Goal-Directed Movements in Crows. The Journal of Neuroscience, 2021. 41(18): p. 4060-4072.
47. Fongaro, E. and J. Rose, Crows control working memory before and after stimulus encoding. Scientific Reports, 2020. 10(1): p. 3253.
48. Wagener, L., et al., Crows protect visual working memory against interference. Journal of Experimental Biology, 2023. 226(5).
49. Wagener, L. and A. Nieder, Categorical Auditory Working Memory in Crows. iScience, 2020. 23(11).
50. Veit, L., K. Hartmann, and A. Nieder, Neuronal Correlates of Visual Working Memory in the Corvid Endbrain. The Journal of Neuroscience, 2014. 34(23): p. 7778-7786.
51. Kirschhock, M.E., H.M. Ditz, and A. Nieder, Behavioral and Neuronal Representation of Numerosity Zero in the Crow. The Journal of Neuroscience, 2021. 41(22): p. 4889-4896.
52. Bluff, L.A., Alex AS Weir, and Christian Rutz, Tool-related cognition in New Caledonian crows. 2007.
53. Fongaro, E., Working memory in crows (Corvus corone). 2019.
54. Cowan, N., What are the differences between long-term, short-term, and working memory? Progress in brain research, 2008. 169: p. 323-338.
55. Ullman, M.T., Contributions of memory circuits to language: The declarative/procedural model. Cognition, 2004. 92(1-2): p. 231-270.
56. Schacter, D.L., Implicit memory: History and current status. Journal of experimental psychology: learning, memory, and cognition, 1987. 13(3): p. 501.
57. Squire, L.R., Declarative and Nondeclarative Memory: Multiple Brain Systems Supporting Learning and Memory. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 1992. 4(3): p. 232-243.
58. Balda, R.P. and A.C. Kamil, Long-term spatial memory in Clark’s nutcracker, Nucifraga columbiana. Animal Behaviour, 1992. 44(4): p. 761-769.
59. Clayton, N.S. and A. Dickinson, Episodic-like memory during cache recovery by scrub jays. Nature, 1998. 395(6699): p. 272-274.
60. Bogale, B.A., et al., Long-term memory of color stimuli in the jungle crow (Corvus macrorhynchos). Animal Cognition, 2012. 15: p. 285-291.
61. Clayton, N.S., L.H. Salwiczek, and A. Dickinson, Episodic memory. Current Biology, 2007. 17(6): p. R189-R191.
62. Clayton, N.S., T.J. Bussey, and A. Dickinson, Can animals recall the past and plan for the future? Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 2003. 4(8): p. 685-691.
63. Tremblay, S., K.M. Sharika, and M.L. Platt, Social Decision-Making and the Brain: A Comparative Perspective. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 2017. 21(4): p. 265-276.
64. Boucherie, P.H., et al., What constitutes “social complexity” and “social intelligence” in birds? Lessons from ravens. Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology, 2019. 73: p. 1-14.
65. LANGIN, K. Ravens remember people who suckered them into an unfair deal. 2017.
66. Fraser, O.N. and T. Bugnyar, The quality of social relationships in ravens. Animal Behaviour, 2010. 79(4): p. 927-933.
67. Boeckle, M. and T. Bugnyar, Long-term memory for affiliates in ravens. Current Biology, 2012. 22(9): p. 801-806.
68. Fraser, O.N. and T. Bugnyar, Do Ravens Show Consolation? Responses to Distressed Others. PLOS ONE, 2010. 5(5): p. e10605.
69. Stöwe, M., et al., Novel object exploration in ravens (Corvus corax): Effects of social relationships. Behavioural Processes, 2006. 73(1): p. 68-75.
70. Boeckle, M., et al., New Caledonian crows plan for specific future tool use. Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, 2020. 287(1938): p. 20201490.
71. Amodio, P., et al., Testing two competing hypotheses for Eurasian jays’ caching for the future. Scientific reports, 2021. 11(1): p. 835.
72. Roehmholdt, C.E., Using Vocalizations to Determine the Capacity for Future Cognition in the Common Raven (Corvus Corax). 2019, Diss. Evergreen State College.
73. McRae, K. and M. Jones, 14 Semantic Memory. Vol. 206. 2013: Oxford University Press Oxford.
74. Radvansky, G.A. and A.K. Tamplin, Memory, in Encyclopedia of Human Behavior (Second Edition), V.S. Ramachandran, Editor. 2012, Academic Press: San Diego. p. 585-592.
75. Keefner, A., Corvids infer the mental states of conspecifics. Biology & Philosophy, 2016. 31(2): p. 267-281.
76. Nieder, A., L. Wagener, and P. Rinnert, A neural correlate of sensory consciousness in a corvid bird. Science, 2020. 369(6511): p. 1626-1629.
77. Jelbert, S.A., et al., Mental template matching is a potential cultural transmission mechanism for New Caledonian crow tool manufacturing traditions. Scientific Reports, 2018. 8(1): p. 8956.
78. Audet, J.-N., M. Couture, and E.D. Jarvis, Songbird species that display more-complex vocal learning are better problem-solvers and have larger brains. Science, 2023. 381(6663): p. 1170-1175.
79. Coding, A., Tool Use by New Caledonian Crows Can Inform Cognitive Archaeology. 2024: The Oxford Handbook of Cognitive Archaeology.
80. Schacter, D.L., Implicit memory: History and current status. ournal of experimental psychology: learning, memory, and cognition, 1987: p. 501.
81. Wright, A.A., D.M. Kelly, and J.S. Katz, Same/different concept learning by primates and birds. Learning & Behavior, 2021. 49(1): p. 76-84.
